Flag of our fathers
Tens of thousands of abandoned Filipino Amerasians have grown up in poverty and under a cloud of shame. Now that the United States is pivoting towards Asia once again, the fear is that history will repeat itself, writes Sunshine Lichauco de Leon
They call them "Amerasians" - a throwback to a time when America had soldiers based in the Philippines, and some of those soldiers had local girlfriends.
Most of their mothers worked as "bar girls" near the sprawling American naval and air force bases. When the troops returned to the United States 20 years ago, they left behind the product of their liaisons with these women: thousands of infants who would grow up never knowing their fathers. Many were also abandoned by their mothers, who were financially unable or too ashamed to keep them.
Now, this generation is starting to find its voice, after a lifetime of discrimination, bullying and worse. These "second-class" citizens are concerned that with America once again taking a close interest in the Pacific and likely to rotate soldiers through the Philippines as part of its "pivot to Asia", history may be about to repeat itself.
Most Amerasians - an estimated 52,000 were fathered by Americans during the military association with the country - grew up in extreme poverty. They experienced intense discrimination for being "illegitimate", mixed race or the children of prostitutes. Many were unable to finish high school, lacked the skills to find work or were denied jobs because of their skin colour.
Michelle Zavala Nunag, 28, says: "People assume that if you're Amerasian your mother worked in a bar - and that you will be just like her." Working in a bar, in the Philippines, can be a euphemism for prostitution.
"Black Amerasians" - those fathered by African-American servicemen - suffered the most. Brenda Moreno, 43, does not know the name of either of her parents. As a child, she hid at home because she felt ashamed. Moreno says: "They always call me 'nigger'. When I was younger I told everyone I wanted to change my blood so I could be white."
Forced to leave school at the age of 10, she feels imprisoned by the circumstances of her birth: "I can't find a good job because I can't go to school. I am just always working as a housemaid," she says. "How can I change my life? I am just trying my best."