bodyType

customContents

entityId

printArticlePageQuery

filter

article

body

urlAlias

articleSectionsContent

articleSeoArticle

articleSourceHeaderArticle

contentSchemaRenderContent

contentSubHeadlineContent

contentHeadlineContent

mainImagePrintArticleArticle

authorBlockPrintArticleArticle

contentSponsorTagContent

articlePianoPaywallContent

scmpYoutubeContent

hooksTrackPageViewArticle

query printArticlePageQuery(
  $entityId: String!
  $customContents: [CustomContentInput]
  $bodyType: BodyFormatTypeEnum
) {
  article(filter: {entityId: $entityId}) {
    entityId
    body(customContents: $customContents, type: $bodyType) {
      json
    }
    urlAlias
    ...articleSectionsContent
    ...articleSeoArticle_3o8td4
    ...articleSourceHeaderArticle
    ...contentSchemaRenderContent
    ...contentSubHeadlineContent
    ...contentHeadlineContent
    ...mainImagePrintArticleArticle
    ...authorBlockPrintArticleArticle
    ...contentSponsorTagContent
    ...articlePianoPaywallContent
    ...scmpYoutubeContent
    ...hooksTrackPageViewArticle
    id
  }
}

fragment articlePianoPaywallContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...hooksPaywallPromiseContent
}

fragment articleSectionsContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  sectionsV2 {
    value {
      __typename
      ... on Section {
        name
        published
      }
      ... on VideoSection {
        name
        published
      }
      ...helpersCheckIfNewsSectionInFirstIndexSection
      ...entityLink
      ... on Node {
        __isNode: __typename
        id
      }
    }
  }
}

fragment articleSeoArticle_3o8td4 on Article {
  ...hooksArticleSeoArticle
  ...helpersGetArticleTypeArticle
  entityId
  publishedDate
  updatedDate
  summary {
    text
  }
  subHeadline {
    text
  }
  body(customContents: $customContents, type: $bodyType) {
    text
  }
  keywords
  sectionsV2 {
    value {
      __typename
      ... on Section {
        name
      }
      ... on Node {
        __isNode: __typename
        id
      }
    }
  }
  topics {
    name
    entityId
    id
  }
  urlAlias
  authors {
    name
    id
  }
  images {
    style(filter: {style: "768x768"}) {
      url
    }
  }
  readingTime
}

fragment articleSourceHeaderArticle on Article {
  urlAlias
  ...entityLink
}

fragment authorBlockPrintArticleArticle on Article {
  ...defaultArticleDateContent
  ...authorNamesArticle
}

fragment authorNameAuthor on Author {
  ...entityLink
  name
  entityUuid
}

fragment authorNamesArticle on Article {
  authorLocations
  authors {
    entityId
    location
    ...authorNameAuthor
    id
  }
}

fragment blockquoteQuoteContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...contentShareWidgetContent
}

fragment checkersCheckContentContainsStarlingImageContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  topics {
    entityId
    id
  }
}

fragment contentHeadlineContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  headline
  socialHeadline
  ...contentHeadlineTagContent
  ...helpersUseContentSponsorContent
}

fragment contentHeadlineTagContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...hooksContentHeadlineTagContent
}

fragment contentNewsletterWidgetContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  topics {
    relatedNewsletters {
      ...helpersMassageToNewsletterItemNewsletter
      id
    }
    id
  }
  sectionsV2 {
    value {
      __typename
      ... on Section {
        relatedNewsletters {
          ...helpersMassageToNewsletterItemNewsletter
          id
        }
      }
      ... on Node {
        __isNode: __typename
        id
      }
    }
  }
  ... on Article {
    relatedNewsletters {
      ...helpersMassageToNewsletterItemNewsletter
      id
    }
  }
}

fragment contentSchemaRenderContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...blockquoteQuoteContent
  ...hooksInlinePlusWidgetContent
  ...imageContent
  ...inlineWidgetContent
  ...photoGalleryWidgetContent
  ...scmpYoutubeContent
}

fragment contentShareWidgetContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  __typename
  entityId
  urlAlias
  shortUrl
  socialHeadline
  headline
  ... on Video {
    youtubeId
  }
}

fragment contentSponsorTagContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...helpersUseContentSponsorContent
}

fragment contentSubHeadlineContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  subHeadline {
    json
  }
  summary {
    json
  }
  ...contentSchemaRenderContent
}

fragment defaultArticleDateContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...hooksArticleDateUtilsContent
}

fragment entityLink on BaseWithApplicationAndUrlAlias {
  __isBaseWithApplicationAndUrlAlias: __typename
  __typename
  entityId
  entityUuid
  urlAlias
  urlRedirect {
    toUrl
    id
  }
  application {
    entityId
    id
  }
  ... on Section {
    fullSectionPath {
      entityId
      id
    }
    parentSection
  }
  ...helpersAppBarVariantBase
  ...helpersApplicationBase
  ...helpersCheckIsPlusArticle
  ...helpersStyleSectionContent
}

fragment helpersAppBarVariantBase on BaseWithApplicationAndUrlAlias {
  __isBaseWithApplicationAndUrlAlias: __typename
  ...helpersCheckIsLiveArticle
  ...helpersCheckIsPlusPage
  ...helpersCheckIsPostMagazineArticle
  ...helpersCheckIsStyleArticle
  ...helpersSectionContent
  ...helpersStyleSectionContent
}

fragment helpersApplicationBase on BaseWithApplicationAndUrlAlias {
  __isBaseWithApplicationAndUrlAlias: __typename
  ...helpersCheckIsPlusPage
}

fragment helpersCheckIfNewsSectionInFirstIndexSection on SectionUnion {
  __isSectionUnion: __typename
  ... on Section {
    name
  }
  ... on VideoSection {
    name
  }
}

fragment helpersCheckIsAmpEnabledArticle on Article {
  entityId
  types {
    value {
      entityId
      id
    }
  }
  sectionsV2 {
    value {
      __typename
      ... on Section {
        entityId
      }
      ... on Node {
        __isNode: __typename
        id
      }
    }
  }
  disableOffPlatformContent
  sponsorType
  published
  ...helpersCheckIsPlusArticle
}

fragment helpersCheckIsLiveArticle on Article {
  flattenTypeIds
  liveArticle {
    status
    id
  }
}

fragment helpersCheckIsMainTopicContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  topics {
    entityId
    id
  }
}

fragment helpersCheckIsPlusArticle on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ... on Article {
    paywallTypes {
      entityUuid
      id
    }
  }
}

fragment helpersCheckIsPlusPage on Page {
  urlAlias
}

fragment helpersCheckIsPostMagazineArticle on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  sectionsV2 {
    value {
      __typename
      ... on Section {
        entityId
      }
      ... on Node {
        __isNode: __typename
        id
      }
    }
  }
}

fragment helpersCheckIsStyleArticle on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  sectionsV2 {
    value {
      __typename
      ... on Section {
        entityId
      }
      ... on VideoSection {
        entityId
      }
      ... on Node {
        __isNode: __typename
        id
      }
    }
  }
}

fragment helpersGetArticleTypeArticle on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ... on Article {
    types {
      value {
        entityId
        id
      }
    }
  }
}

fragment helpersMassageToNewsletterItemNewsletter on Newsletter {
  entityId
  name
  alternativeName
  description {
    text
  }
  summary {
    text
  }
  homepageDescription {
    text
  }
}

fragment helpersSanitizeArticleTypeEntityIdsArticle on Article {
  types {
    value {
      entityId
      id
    }
  }
}

fragment helpersSanitizeAuthorTypesArticle on Article {
  authors {
    types
    id
  }
}

fragment helpersSanitizedAuthorEntityIdsArticle on Article {
  authors {
    entityId
    id
  }
}

fragment helpersSectionContent on Section {
  fullSectionPath {
    entityId
    id
  }
}

fragment helpersStyleSectionContent on Section {
  fullSectionPath {
    entityId
    id
  }
}

fragment helpersUseContentSponsorContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  topics {
    entityId
    sponsor {
      ...sponsorTagSponsor
      name
      type
      id
    }
    id
  }
  ... on Article {
    sponsorType
  }
  ...helpersCheckIsMainTopicContent
}

fragment hooksArticleDateUtilsContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  createdDate
  publishedDate
  updatedDate
}

fragment hooksArticleSeoArticle on Article {
  ...helpersCheckIsPostMagazineArticle
  ...helpersCheckIsStyleArticle
  ...hooksContentHeadlineTagContent
  ...helpersCheckIsAmpEnabledArticle
  entityId
  headline
  socialHeadline
  types {
    value {
      entityId
      id
    }
  }
  authors {
    entityId
    id
  }
  images {
    generic_og: style(filter: {style: "og_image_scmp_generic"}) {
      url
    }
    styles(filter: {styles: ["og_postmag", "og_image_style", "og_image_scmp_analysis", "og_image_scmp_explainer", "og_image_scmp_editorial", "og_image_scmp_fact_check", "og_image_scmp_debate", "og_image_scmp_live", "og_image_scmp_obituary", "og_image_scmp_opinion", "og_image_scmp_review", "og_image_scmp_series", "og_image_scmp_generic"]}) {
      url
      style
    }
    type
  }
  urlAlias
}

fragment hooksContentHeadlineTagContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  __typename
  ... on Article {
    types {
      value {
        name
        entityId
        description {
          text
        }
        id
      }
    }
    ...helpersCheckIsStyleArticle
  }
  flag
  sectionsV2 {
    value {
      __typename
      ... on Section {
        name
      }
      ... on VideoSection {
        name
      }
      ... on Node {
        __isNode: __typename
        id
      }
    }
  }
  ...hooksContentHelperContent
}

fragment hooksContentHelperContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...helpersSanitizeArticleTypeEntityIdsArticle
  ...helpersSanitizeAuthorTypesArticle
  ...helpersSanitizedAuthorEntityIdsArticle
  flag
}

fragment hooksInlinePlusWidgetContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  topics {
    entityId
    id
  }
}

fragment hooksPaywallPromiseContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  entityId
}

fragment hooksTrackPageViewArticle on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  entityId
  publishedDate
  headline
  sectionsV2 {
    value {
      __typename
      ... on Section {
        name
      }
      ... on Node {
        __isNode: __typename
        id
      }
    }
  }
  urlAlias
  authors {
    name
    id
  }
  entityUuid
}

fragment imageContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  headline
  ...checkersCheckContentContainsStarlingImageContent
}

fragment inlineWidgetContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...contentNewsletterWidgetContent
}

fragment mainImagePrintArticleArticle on Article {
  images {
    title
    url
    isSlideshow
    size_652x446: style(filter: {style: "652x446"}) {
      url
    }
  }
}

fragment photoGalleryDialogContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  __typename
  ...contentShareWidgetContent
}

fragment photoGalleryWidgetContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...photoGalleryDialogContent
}

fragment scmpYoutubeContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  entityId
  urlAlias
  publishedDate
}

fragment sponsorTagSponsor on Sponsor {
  name
  type
  images {
    url
  }
}


types

sectionsV2

disableOffPlatformContent

sponsorType

published

headline

socialHeadline

authors

images

publishedDate

updatedDate

summary

subHeadline

keywords

topics

readingTime

authorLocations

Dannie Peng

The long-held theory of human evolution says that modern humans originated in Africa and then migrated to other parts of the world.
However, that “out of Africa” model is being challenged by a Chinese evolutionary biologist – who argues instead that East Asia was the most likely origin.
Huang Shi is a recently retired professor of epigenetics – the study of how behaviour and environment can cause changes and affect gene activity – and evolution at Central South University (CSU) in Changsha, Hunan province.
According to Huang’s new molecular evolution theory, East Asian populations, which have the least genetic diversity, are likely to have been the real ancestors of modern humans.
Huang has focused on his theory since 2009, when he returned to China after nearly three decades in the United States as a researcher and teacher.
“Multiple lines of tests, including ancient DNA analyses, lend robust support to the ‘out of East Asia’ model as the more accurate representation of modern human origins,” he said in an article published last month in the Chinese-language journal Prehistoric Archaeology.
For decades, the dominant hypothesis on human origin has been the “out of Africa” theory, which holds that modern humans first appeared in southern Africa around 50,000 years ago and then migrated to Eurasia, largely replacing indigenous populations.
But Huang says the theoretical premises that led to this conclusion, including the so-called molecular clock theory, are in fact only a framework or assumption for explaining population genetics – which cannot be taken as a real and universal natural discipline law.
The concept of a molecular evolutionary clock was first proposed in 1962 by Austrian-born French biologist Émile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, an American theoretical physical chemist and Nobel winner.
Citing fossil evidence estimates, the pair noted that the number of amino acid differences in haemoglobin – a type of protein – changed between different lineages roughly in line with time. Their study laid the foundation for the then-emerging field of molecular evolution.


Huang said that in the early 1960s, after the technology for protein sequencing was developed, biologists discovered that the distance in evolutionary relations between species was directly correlated to differences in their DNA sequences.
In other words, according to this hypothesis, the greater the genetic distance, the more distant the evolutionary links between species and the longer the evolutionary time.
The molecular clock theory was thought to explain this phenomenon well, Huang said.
African populations – which have the highest genetic diversity of any racial group – were therefore thought to have evolved longer and to be the common ancestor of modern humans.
But in 2008, when Huang was an associate professor studying genetics and tumour evolution theory at the Burnham Institute for Medical Research in San Diego, his team came up with a very different interpretation – which they called the maximum genetic diversity (MGD) hypothesis.
It challenged the long-held molecular clock theory, which basically says that the simplest species can tolerate the greater upper limit of genetic diversity, while the most advanced and complicated organisms in evolution should be the least genetically diverse.
“If you think of DNA as the building block of a living thing, then genetic diversity is like the error of the parts; the more sophisticated and complex the species, the lower the error,” Huang said.
This seems to reflect the reality of nature. “The simplest organisms, such as the HIV virus, can have up to 40 per cent genomic variation from one individual to another, while monkeys have three times the genetic diversity of humans,” Huang said.
Around the same time, Huang was invited to write a chapter for a scientific monograph on oncology, in which he also introduced his new theory.
Huang continued his studies on MGD after joining the CSU’s Centre for Medical Genetics as a professor in 2009. He said that within a few years, his team was able to draw up an evolutionary tree based on the new theory. It showed that the roots of the tree, or modern humans, originated in East Asia.
Huang’s team first presented their “out of East Asia” theory at an international academic conference in 2016, and wrote a paper on it the following year. It was published on a preprint platform but was not formally accepted by academic journals at the time.
“We tried to submit the paper to many journals and were rejected, so we gave up [on publishing it],” Huang said, adding that he had become used to this situation over the years, unable to find experts willing to review his work and publish it.
“Any intellectual who wants to overturn popular opinion will experience the same difficulties, but it’s fine as long as what you’re promoting is true and you don’t care how long it takes [to be accepted],” he said.


Despite the cold shoulder from international academia, Huang’s theory appears to have caught on in China, with many editors of Chinese-language academic journals inviting him to publish articles.
A growing body of academic evidence on his side was driving his optimism, Huang said.
“The out-of-Africa advocates are basically silent at the moment because they have made almost no progress in the last 10 years,” he said.
On the other hand, his team’s theory is developing very rapidly, according to Huang, who said there was so much new evidence to support his doctrine that he could “easily summarise 10 new papers every month”.
He said that if the out-of-Africa model were correct, 45,000-year-old DNA from Europe should carry African DNA information.
However, he said, the reality was that they were genetically much closer to East Asians, in terms of both paternal and maternal genes.
Earlier this month, scientists said ancient human fossils discovered in a cave in southeastern China could potentially challenge the out-of-Africa theory, as they showed traits of both primitive and modern humans.
Scientists started excavating the site in 2013 after it was discovered in 1988.
The fossils represent the earliest ancient human remains found in East Asia indicating the evolutionary path to today’s Homo sapiens.
US-based anthropology researcher German Dziebel, who holds a doctorate from Stanford, cited some evidence suggesting that Huang’s theory could be a compelling new approach to studying genetic lineages.
“The MGD hypothesis is an innovative yet indeed controversial theory,” Dziebel said.
He said support for Huang’s ideas came from ancient DNA studies, which showed, for example, that DNA in older European samples was less diverse than that in more recent samples.
Meanwhile, findings from other disciplines, such as linguistics and kinship anthropology, had provided results that were more consistent with the ideas proposed by Huang, he noted.
The new theory “has potential and needs to be developed further”, Dziebel concluded.


It was East Asia: Chinese scientist challenges ‘out of Africa’ theory of human evolution

“Multiple lines of tests, including ancient DNA analyses, lend robust support to the ‘out of East Asia’ model,” Huang Shi says in recently published paper. Photo: Xinhua

News

China

Science

Evolutionary biologist Huang Shi argues that lack of genetic diversity among East Asians suggests they are real ancestors of modern humans


Evolutionary biologist Huang Shi argues that lack of genetic diversity among East Asians suggests they are real ancestors of modern humans.


Archaeology and palaeontology

It was East Asia: Chinese scientist challenges ‘out of Africa’ theory of human evolution

.css-1c6uqr6{color:inherit;font-weight:inherit;font-size:inherit;font-family:inherit;line-height:inherit;overflow-wrap:break-word;}Evolutionary biologist Huang Shi argues that lack of genetic diversity among East Asians suggests they are real ancestors of modern humans

Evolutionary biologist Huang Shi argues that lack of genetic diversity among East Asians suggests they are real ancestors of modern humans